Identification of Possible Pathogens in an Office Environment Research Paper

Identification of Possible Pathogens in an Office Environment - Research Paper Example Is there a relationship between working efficiency and pathogenic presence in offices? The disease-causing pathogens lead to various illnesses that may lower the efficiency of personnel in the offices. Due to the reduction in efficiency, the research herein is of a great essentiality. We obtained the isolate by taking a sample of the used Petri plate with Nutrient agar (Ravichandra 37).Thereafter, exposing it to the air in a small office for approximately 1 hour. The Petri plate helped in the collection of a variety of microorganisms. The microorganisms were from surfaces, strictly chairs, desktops and computer mice. The primary purpose of the methodology was to help in identifying a single unknown culture of bacteria to prove whether it is pathogenic or not. The organism I identified via PCR is Dermacoccus nishinomiyaeusis and is non-pathogenic generally regarded as harmless saprophytes (Rose, Joan and Erin 14). It inhabits and contaminates the skin, mucosa, and the pharynx. A Gram-positive coccus locates in tetrads, irregular clusters and cubical agglomerates of eight. It is enzymatic positive and exhibits strictly aerobic metabolic. However, they can be opportunistic disease-causing organisms to the immune-compromised beings. They associated with various infections, including bacteremia, continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis peritonitis, and infections related to ventricular shunts. They occur worldwide and are ubiquitous. They locate on the human skin, marine and fresh water, plants, dust, and air. Rocasermeno, Pablo. "Pressurizing with dust collectors: guidelines on how to apply a concept that is appropriate for mine and plant environments, where dust generated during crushing, screening and conveying must be controlled to protect workers, office spaces and sensitive equipment." E&MJ - Engineering & Mining Journal 2013: 92. General OneFile. Web. 11 Dec.

MASTERPECIS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

MASTERPECIS - Essay Example He is talking about the loneliness he felt in the month of November accompanied by the misty lonely woods .The poet explains the beauty of the hills and experience of the trembling lake which exaggerated his loneliness. In this poem the poet is trying to connect with the objects of the magnificent nature to overcome his undying solitude. He takes the company of the nature and tries to reflect his solitude and despair with it. He finds the solitary element in all the objects of nature which is the situation of the heart of the poet. He resembles the sound of the village clock to that of a galloping horse which is full of energy. He his explaining the motion of the earth which we know is just like the moving fields shown in a passing train. He is trying hard to forma communion with nature and gets lightened by the extreme beauty and moves of nature. Comparison of William Wordsworth’s ideas with William Blake William Wordsworth and William Blake were great romantic poets of 17th century and described their feeling through the beauty of nature. Both of them had an undying love and passion for the nature and believed in the divinity existed in the universe. There can also be seen certain other comparisons between Wordsworth and Blake in how they admired the grace and benevolence of divine nature. Apparently, both these poets believed greatly in the imaginative power of the human being and praised the primitive instinct of a man. Both Wordsworth and Blake saw the characteristics of god in his vast creations and urged for the communion with the divine power. These poets are greatly influenced by the overpowering beauty and grace of the nature and strived to merge with nature to find God. According to Cutajar(2011)â€Å"In his poems such as The Prelude and Tintern Abbey, Nature is personified with Godlike characteristics and it becomes the object of love and worship. Wordsworth believed that this â€Å"natural piety† has given his life consistency and co herence†. This shows that how much Wordsworth was influenced by the nature and god Similar to Wordsworth, Blake also believe in harmony, serenity and divinity in the nature and wants to get back to the primitive nature of man.Applebaum(1996)writes that, â€Å"Serene will be our days and bright, And happy will our nature be, When love is an unerring light, And joy its own security†These lines of Blake depict the love and passion he had for nature and god same like Wordsworth. William Blake found the innocence in the nature which was real and authentic, and Wordsworth also idealized the uncorrupted glory of nature. It can be noticed that the both poets gave much emphasis on God and nature and their theme was exclusively God and universe. They both had the extreme awareness of god and divinity inside them and experienced this through the exalting beauty of nature. They instantly felt the mysterious beauty of nature which can never be altered or created by human at any cost . They were impressed by nature and is stunned by the divine play of God and craved to be a part o f him. Both these poet listen to the inner voice of their heart and connect themselves with the explicit charm of nature and God. Contrast in William Wordsworth’s ideas with William Blake Both William Wordsworth and William Blake were great poets of their time in England and Scenic beauty of the country was their inspiration. However,

Coffee Manufacturing Company Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Coffee Manufacturing Company - Case Study Example From this paper it is clear that   to illustrate our finding, the result of the calculation illustrates that the cash flow for the beginning of the first four years of the sales of the New Home Machine projection are correlatively negative ranging from -146.35 to -273.0. In this sense, company may tend to make a loss for the earlier stage of this new projection and spend more money on the promotion of this new project and test marketing cost and so on due to the new project having low reputation, credibility and lack of competition as it is a new entrant within the industry. As the discussion highlights capital budgeting expenditure is usually of very high value; therefore, the management must undertake a careful analysis before resolving to put money in such projects. This is because, if decisions are made without careful analysis, heavy losses can be incurred or else the management can abandon a very profitable project. As such, this project will involve extensive analysis using techniques such as IRR, NPV and PBP. The objective of this capital analysis is to find out whether the management of Coffee Manufacturing Company (CMC) should adopt Home Grinder Cappuccino Machine or abandon it altogether. The decision as to whether to adopt the machine or abandon it will depend on the outcome of different capital budgeting methods including payback method, Net Present Values, and Internal Rate of Return. The analysis will ensure that the management adopts the projects only when there is an assurance that it will be of substantial economic benefit and abandon i t if investing in it will not have any economic relevance. The analysis will involve a variety of capital budgeting techniques such as Net Present values (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Pay back method. To establish the present values, a discount rate, which in this case is the opportunity cost of capital, is used.  

Honda Strategy and Marketing Analysis

Honda Strategy and Marketing Analysis Volkswagen was the first company entering the Chinese automobile industry. Faced by a satisfied home market the company had to expand its business and therefore the growing economy of China was their next choice. The Volkswagen Beetle, the first car produced for the Chinese market, was a real success. After several years  competitors, mainly from the Japanese market like Honda, started to enter the Chinese market very aggressively and  due to that Volkswagen had to face the challenge to maintain its market leader position and therefore adopt the  corporate strategy. As a consequence Volkswagen China introduced its Olympic Program strategic plan in 2005. The program is calledOlympic since its aim is to reach the strategic goals set by the end of the Olympic year 2008. In the following we will analyze the strategic plans of Volkswagen and set them in context to the strategic behaviour of  the Japanese competitor Honda. 3.1 Marketing Volkswagen announced to focus more on differentiation. This is due to the existence of two joint ventures and the  planned positioning of the Skoda products. By offering a large product variety the group aims to serve as many different  target customer groups as possible. In opposition to previous product designs the new cars offered by Volkswagen will be adapted to Chinese taste in order  to increase the brands popularity. The former Volkswagen products were designed for the European market but since  Japanese car manufacturers fit better to the Asian taste the company had to react. The Volkswagen products in China  compete on quality but to maintain the companys leading position it is unremitting to produce cars that are both  fashionable and qualitative. 3.2 Sales Sales relationships are going to be restructured and there will be more interaction between the two joint ventures FAW  VW and VWS. These strategic interactions are another way to increase the companys customer orientation and thereby  the attractiveness of the brand. Dealerships will be tailored to the newly-defined customer groups segmentation of the  two joint ventures respectively. Vehicles of the Volkswagen brand will be distributed through two dealer network  channels. By this, Volkswagen aims at its strategic goal to maintain its leading position by serving different customer  groups. 3.3 Research and Development The company focuses more on in-house developments within the Volkswagen joint ventures in China to save costs. Ten  to twelve new models developed in China for the Chinese market should be launched by the end of 2008. 3.4 Sourcing and Supply Chain Historically the two joint ventures VW Shanghai FAW VW in Changchun sourced separately but within the last decade  sourcing became more challenging for the company: the cars are becoming more sophisticated and therefore the  components have to fulfil higher expectations, the technical expertise of the supplier is getting more important and it is  difficult for Volkswagen to find suppliers which meet their requirements, lack of availability of certain raw materials  (e.g. specific kinds of steel) cause sourcing difficulties. As a reaction Volkswagen is trying to introduce a common sourcing process for the global group and bundle the  purchasing volume in China to create economies of scale. Thereby the target is to find one supplier for each platform  part and carry these parts to China. 3.5 Manufacturing In order to decrease production costs the board decided to introduce so called product cost workshops within the  manufacturing departments to communicate cost targets and produce to costs. Also large parts of the manufacturing  process will be done in China and localization in China are planned to be increased to make use of the cheaper labour  wages in China. Besides all plans to reduce production costs Volkswagen tries not to compromise its high engineering  quality and manufacturing standards since this is a very important success factor for the company. 4. Honda strategy in China Honda advocates the spirit of three joys. Because of their belief in the value of each individual, Honda believes that each person working in, or coming in touch  with their company, directly or through their products, should share a sense of joy through that experience. This feeling  is expressed in what they call The Three Joys. Their goal is to provide Joy: for those who buy their products and produce their products. In that regard, their main concern is for people. First, there is The Joy of Buying for every customer who buys a Honda This Joy is a step beyond customer satisfaction. As they define it, there are four steps to successfully creating The Joy  of Buying.   We also pick up another 4 strategy of Guangzhou Honda in China. Firstly, large scales of purchasing; Honda uses their  economies of scale by working with their parts suppliers to order raw materials in large quantities. Secondly, suppliers localization, more than 160 component suppliers around Guangzhou Honda to manufacture some  supports component for automobiles. For example, the glass seat and engine. These parts are supplied not only for  Guangzhou Honda but also sometimes for exporting. Whats more, setting up manufacturing base for transmission in  Guangzhou really makes a record, because this is the first time for foreign-funded automobiles enterprises to set up  transmission manufacturing base in China. And this investment of Honda makes the supplier localization especially the  suppliers for core parts. Thirdly, optimizing logistics process. They use logistics management software from USA.The logistics department of  Guangzhou Honda was demanded to operate according to the pattern in Janpese Logistics Company. They emphasize  importing the service quality in logistics, decreasing logistics cost enlarge market share and competitiveness and import  new technology and methods in logistics from USA. Fourthly, making supply chain perfect. The Honda setting up a local transmission manufacturing base in Guangzhou  makes transmissions no longer popular in importing and components industrial chain in China will develop to perfect. the newly set-up base will provide transmissions to three Honda companies in China(Guangzhou Honda, Dongfeng  Honda and China Honda)In this pattern, the most crucial part of automobileengine production has been promoted a  lot. In the influence of transmission localization. The biggest supplier of clutch in Japan set up a factory in 5 years with the  total investment54million dollars in Nanhai District in Guangzhou and it manufacture clutch for Guangzhou Honda  directly. With the localization of supplier of transmission and clutch the supply chain of Guangzhou Honda has developed into  nearly perfect. Hondas strategy in supply chain can considerably decrease the cost which gives Guangzhou Honda more profits. Then we move on to the comparison of the marketing between Volkswagen and Honda. Firstly, for Honda they launch a  new car later in China compared with in Japan. For example, the Accord in 2008 was launched half a year later in China  than in Japan. But for Volkswagen, a new car will have a same launching agenda all over the world; it means same time  promoting same time marketing. Secondly, Honda adjusts the price to the situation of market nearly every season. Demand fluctuation, price fluctuation. The flexible price strategy is different from Volkswagens steady price strategy which perhaps gives consumers more  reliability. Thirdly, Honda fight for market share and Volkswagen emphasize brand reputation in long term, Honda target  consumers which means flexible strategy will be much easier for company to survive and succeed. While for  Volkswagen, more luxury and exclusive element allow Volkswagen to offer more credence for consumers in order to  gain reputation in long term. Case study : SIAC 6.4.1. General History of SVW and SGM Not only did Shanghai present an advantage as a potential market, but  Shanghais heavy industrial infrastructure also made major contributions to Shanghai  VW (SVW) and Shanghai GM (SGM). A larger number of parts factories, together  with the extant Shanghai car plants and the citys steel and other heavy industries,  cried out for the final ingredients necessary for rapid development: modern  technology and management skills. An automobile cluster began to develop in Shanghai in the 1980s, thanks to  strong government support at different levels. To upgrade the national automobile  industry following international standards and to avoid an influx of automobile  imports, the central government started negotiation with VW in 1978 for the  establishment of a joint auto production firm. During that entire year, the countrys  state-owned auto factories produced only 15,500 vehicles, and the industry was characterized by old-fashioned, low-quality cars that were produced with outdated  equipment in a labor-intensive process (Kiefer, 1998). Chinese official pressed the  idea of building autos for export and insisted on auto-parts localization. The German  counterpart, however, explained the necessity of auto-part import at the first stage and  proposed the idea of localization as China became more experienced in producing  quality part supplies. Within this cooperative atmosphere, the contrac t was signed in  1984. This joint venture was owned 50% by Volkswagen, 25% by SAIC, 15% by the  Bank of Chinas Shanghai Trust and Consultancy Corporation, and 10% by the China  National Automotive Industrial Corporation. The involvement of Chinese partners  revealed careful forethought: The Bank of China could provide or guarantee needed  loans, SAIC would have an interest in solving local problems, and CNAIC could be a  link to the central planner. (Harwit, 1995, p. 153). To reduce its dependence on VW and to stimulate technology transfer after  one decade of cooperation, SAIC decided to engage in the joint venture with GM in  the early 1990s. SAIC and GM signed a contract to jointly set up Shanghai GM  production facilities in Pudong in 1997. GM was anxious to win this joint venture  because it believed that SAIC was the best automobile company in China. Indeed,  SAIC was highly profitable due to many advantages. Notably, the Chinese  government had chosen SAIC to be the primary passenger car producer enabling it to  acquire the most relevant technological experiences, more so than any other domestic  company. However, the obvious disadvantage of working with SAIC was its existing  joint venture with VW which was one of GMs global competitors and which had  dominated the Chinese passenger car market since the mid-80s (see Table 19). Since  its establishment, SGM has grown into one of the largest car producers in China. 6.4.2. Auto Supplier Cluster in Shanghai Area The development of the automobile industry in the city was strongly supported  by municipal policies, including infrastructure development, labor market, and  industrial policies. In addition, to stimulate broad manufacturing competencies and to  integrate Chinese suppliers within the region, the central government enforced local-content regulations on those auto joint ventures to spur the development of a regional  production network with substantial local linkages. Meanwhile, there has been a strong tendency in the international automobile  industry to develop hierarchical supplier networks and shift the developing,  manufacturing, and assembly responsibilities of important modules to the first-tier  suppliers. Along with the globalization strategy of the automobile producers, large  first-tier suppliers were also required to follow their auto assembly partners and set up  production facilities in other nations (Sadler, 1998). As a consequence, VW  demanded that important first-tier suppliers establish production facilities in China,  preferably within the region. However, production volume (less than 20,000 units in 1990) at that time was too small for global suppliers to set up mass production  facilities in Shanghai. In the initial years after production was launched, SVW still imported most parts and components for the production of the VW Santana from overseas, a large part of which was from Germany. At that time, there were basically no firms in the  region that could have supplied the parts that were needed. However, the Chinese  government threatened to impose a production limit on SVW if the firm would not  increase its local content in production. To achieve the 70% local content regulation  but at the same time to ensure global quality standards, VW and the Chinese  government worked interactively in promoting joint venture partnerships in the auto  parts sector. 6.4.3. Joint Ventures Firm Strategy and Competition SAICs strategy is clear-to form multiple auto JVs with different global  firms and to benefit from competitions between those partners, in regard to  technology transfer, new model introduction, and supply market rationalization. SAICs experience with GM and VW proved this strategy, and GM seems to do a  better job in quality control, technology adaptation, and accurate appraisals of  domestic demand market than its competitor VW. While VW and GM are  increasingly going head to head in the marketplace as they expand their product lines,  SAIC may find itself competing with both when its own car goes on sale. At the same . time, VW and GM run the risk of being shunted aside as Chinas domestic auto  industry develops. In July 2004, national auto sales rose only 3.7% over the same period in 2003  (CAAM, 2005). The growth slowdown has had a significant impact on VW who was  losing market shares because of an aging product line and increased competition. In  2002, cars made by SVW had 27.6% of the China market; in 2003 they slipped to  19.6%, and for the first seven months of 2004, they fell further to 15.5% (Xu, 2005). VWs difficulties have created an opportunity for GM, which passed SVW  briefly in June 2004 to become the market leader. Over the past few years, Chinese  consumers have become more savvy shoppers through greater access to information  (The middle class., 2001), said Phil Murtaugh (CEO of GM China) at the 2001  China Business Summit, and they have higher expectations for the products and their  quality. (The middle class., 2001). He pointed to the dramatic increase of internet  usage and the greater number of Chinese auto publications. Chinas growing middle  class itself represents a sophisticated customer base for a broaden product mix and  thus fierce competition, Murtaugh said (The middle class., 2001). A careful  evaluation of changing domestic consumers and a close relationship with Chinese  engineers in its technical center keeps GM consistently in the leading position in  Chinese passenger car market. 6.4.4. Technology Transfer: Good and Bad  Scholars a dvocated that the existing supplier network and industrial  infrastructure were important reasons why GM also decided to set up production  facilities in Shanghai in 1997(Gallagher, 2005; Taylor III, 2004), while the later  success of GM, to a large extent, is attributed to its sincere investment in local  technology development and close cooperation with Chinese engineers. Nonetheless,  problems could rise from inter-JV technology transfer. GM was the first company that actually established a technical center with  additional investment in Shanghai, following the governments promotion of  technology transfer in the 1994 industrial policy. A separate $50 million US joint  venture was established between GM and SAIC named the Pan Asian Technical  Center (PATAC). PATACs main purpose is to provide engineering support to SGM  and other Chinese auto companies. PATAC has also established an in-house  emissions testing center and has employed around 400 Chinese engineers, which,  though not directly training Chinese engineers, gives China the opportunity to work  closely with advanced techniques and learn in the process. According to Porter (1990), only when a foreign company transfers RD  decisions can it add to the host nations competitiveness.  

Individuality :: essays research papers

Individuality is a characteristic that sets you apart from everyone else. The author Tim O’Brien illustrates this through Rat Kiley, Kiowa and Mary Anne in his novel, The Things They Carried. Individuality shows the personality of a character, reveals the link between personality and the physical items the soldiers carried, and how individuality is used to create teamwork.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When overlooking the personalities of the characters; they all are unique. Rat Kiley is the medic of the operation. He is often known to being humorous, cracking jokes, and telling stories. Religious and cautious would be words to describe Kiowa. Being a Native American, he is careful around others not like himself. Though there are only two main characters that are female in the novel, Mary Anne is one like no other. She is introduced into the chapter as, â€Å"Just a kid, just barely out of high school† (90). Seen having a bubbly and flirtatious personality, she is still naà ¯ve, young and curious like a â€Å"kid†. Tittering between the notions of safety with her boyfriend or joining the thrill of a Green Berets life, she is overcome by her desire of danger, and goes with the Greenies. Though her boyfriend and his friends try to convince her to stay with them, she does not waver in the end. Many see her shrouded in mystery because they’re bewildered by her actions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If comparing personality to personal belongings, there are few differences to distinguish them. In Rat Kiley’s case, carrying a â€Å"canvas satchel filled with morphine, plasma, malaria tablets and surgical tape† (5) as well as comic books would not be a surprise. Being a medic, a first aid kit would be essential. Since Rat is a funny and an amusing person its no wonder why he owns comic books. Entertainment and kits would not be objects found with Kiowa. In his backpack you would find a hatchet and a copy of The New Testament. Kiowa is a devout Baptist and a bible is natural for him to be carrying. A hatchet may be a symbol that ties him with his Native American heritage. Opposite life and items from the soldiers, Mary Anne arrives with a suitcase and plastic cosmetic bag. Since she was arranged for a visit, a suitcase with her clothes is assumed. For her to wear and carry makeup reflects her girlish attitude and fresh-faced appearance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Teamwork can not be done alone; it’s distributed to different people who assist in different ways.

Tinbergen’s Four Questions Regarding Orca Behaviour

Introduction The type of communication used to transmit information is closely related to the animal’s lifestyle and environment. This can be seen in most terrestrial mammals which are nocturnal so use olfactory and auditory which work as well in the dark as they do during the day. Visual communication would be relatively ineffective in this lifestyle. In contrast humans are diurnal and use primarily visual and auditory signals for communication, but miss many chemical cues which many other mammals base their behaviour upon.Marine mammals often need to communicate great distances, and the water does not support visual cues over great distance. This is why whales and dolphins use primarily auditory signals. Auditory signals can travel great distances and travel four and a half times faster in water than in air (Ford, 1984). Killer whales or Orca (Orcinus orca) are very social dolphins and live in pods often consisting of family members from between four up to fifty for resident ial whales while transient pods normally are only between two and five animals (Ford, 1989).These pods communicate with each other by use of echolocation clicks, tonal whistles and pulsed calls (Deecke et al. , 2000). The three main noises have very different uses from each other. Clicks can either be produced as a single click or produced in rapid succession. Single clicks are generally used for navigation and collection of clicks and whistles are thought to be used for communication amongst members of the pod. Pulses are believed, with the assistance of single clicks, to be the method used by orcas to distinguish objects and discriminate prey (Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996). Residential orcas feed on fish, and can be frequently heard communicating with the clicks, whistles and calls because the fish have very poor hearing abilities (Wilson, 2002). The vocal behaviour of transient killer whales is quite different with the vocal communication consisting of occasional clicks and pulses (Deecke et al. , 2000). The only occasion where transient orcas display significant amounts of vocal activity is when they are active on the surface or recently after a kill.The reasons for this reduction of noise could be due to many factors which can be seen in other species interactions and behaviour. Using ‘Tinbergen’s four questions’, I will explain what necessity for this behaviour and what the origins of the silent behaviour may have been. Tinbergen’s Four Questions In 1963 Nikolaas Tinbergen published a paper â€Å"On aims and methods of ethology†. In this paper he discussed how he believed any question regarding animal behaviour should be broken down into four different questions.These four questions could be divided into two categories, evolutionary (ultimate) explanations and proximate explanations. The evolutionary explanations, which refer to the population, include evolution or phylogenetic determinants and survival value or adaptive significance. The phylogenetic determinants refer to all evolutionary explanations which are not covered by adaptive significance. These may include random processes including mutation and changes in the environment which could have impacts on the population resulting in a specific behaviour adaptation.The adaptive significance closely follows Charles Darwin’s work on natural selection where it is explained that an animal’s form has been altered to function better in the habitat and resulting in a increase in fitness for the individual. The proximate explanations are focused with dealing in terms of the individual as opposed to the population. The two different individual questions proposed by Tinbergen relate to causation and ontogeny. The causation for a display of behaviour relates to the mechanics of the body and which stimuli provides a cue for the animal to display this behaviour.Included in causation is control of hormones, motor control, central-nervous-system control and the ability to process the information obtained through senses. Ontogeny relates to the development of an individual, from conception til death. This may include a experience or a environmental factor which occurs and changes the behaviour of the animal, including learned behaviour from another individual. Causation ? Figure 1: An illustration of sound generation, propagation and reception in a killer whale. (WhalesB. C. com)The nasopharyngeal anatomy of cetaceans is strongly modified comparing with terrestrial mammals. They have one impair respiratory hole at the top of the head. It is closed near the surface by dense musculocutaneous crimps arranged so, that the salient of one of them enters into the dimple of another. They form a peculiar lock preventing the water from penetrating into respiratory tract. Above the skull around of nose passage there is a system of pneumatic sacs, connected with nose passage (Barrett-Lennard et al. , 1996).In 1964 A. V. Jablokov suppose d that sounds could be produced by forcing air through these nasal sacs. Air is forced past a set of finely striated muscular plugs or lips that vibrate or slap against each other as the lips are forced apart by the stream of air and then slapped shut by muscular tension (Ford, 1989). Transient killer whales are often very difficult to track when under water as they are typically silent. Often communicating with each other with just a single click, known as a cryptic click (Deecke et al. , 2000).The only time that the killer whales produce large amounts of vocal activity was when milling about on the surface or after killing a marine mammal. Transients have been found to only use four to six discrete calls which are not shared with the resident pods (Deecke et al. , 2004). Ontogeny Like other aspects of learning in mammalian society, I hypothesise that the newborn calves will be taught the ability for vocalisation by its parent or other pod members. There have been many studies on k iller whale vocalisations in different parts of the world including Canada (Ford, 1984), Alaska (Yurk et al. 2002) and Norway (Matkin, 1988). Each study showed that every pod has its own distinctive repertoire of discrete calls, often this phenomenon is referred to as vocal dialects. The differences in vocal repertoires can be the result of geographic isolation and when this occurs it is not dialects that are being represented but â€Å"geographic variations of vocal repertoire† (Ford, 1984). The use of repetitive calls and the specific number and type of discrete calls are what are used to classify and compare dialects. Pods often produce between seven and seventeen different types of discrete calls.Some pods share calls and are grouped together as a acoustic clan (Baird et al. , 1988). Different clans might represent different independent maternal lineages, which have persisted for many generations, developing their independent call traditions. Dialects are probably the mea ns by which pod cohesiveness and identity are maintained. Newborn calls manage to produce calls very comparable to their mothers, but the repertoire is very limited. With the arrival of a new calf to the pod, the calls of the pod and particularly the matriarch increase, especially the frequency of pod-specific calls (Ford, 1989).This is widely regarded as the method to which newborns learn the pods dialect. The majority of the learning done by the newborn is a process of imitation and trial and error. The calf does not always learn communication from a parent. In captivity a young whale was observed to have learned the calls of its tank mate, even though it had no relatedness. Survival Value I hypothesise that the because the mammalian predators can hear well under water is the reason why the transient killer whales adopt significantly reduced communication during periods of foraging.Acoustic communication can have great benefits such as organising groups for attacks and avoiding pr edation. As with all behaviour traits there is a trade off. There is a direct cost of energy required to producing the sounds and along with this is the loss of energy from lack of feeding during times of communicating. There is also a indirect cost, especially for transient killer whales, which pass information on to eavesdroppers. Eavesdroppers may include competitors (Hammond et al. , 2003), predators (Hosken et al. 1994) or for transient killer whales alerting potential prey. Various studies have documented the costs from eavesdropping for prey in the case of predators who utilise echolocation. Bats have been documented preying on frogs performing mating calls by eavesdropping on them (Fenton, 2003). Insects have also been noted as being able to avoid predation from bats by listening to their acoustic projections (Rydell et al. , 1995). Communicative vocalizations are usually not essential for prey location unlike echolocation.This is the most likely reason that transient killer whales move in silence or considerably reduced vocal communication while foraging. Evolution I believe that the evolution of marine mammals from a common ancestor hinders the transient killer whales hunting due to the retention of excellent underwater hearing by marine mammals. In Pakistan the discovery of Ambulocetus was remarkable, a three metre long mammal which resembled a crocodile. It is thought to be the transitional fossil starting the mammalian movement towards an aquatic life.By 38 million years ago mammals had fully adapted to a aquatic life with the emergence of Basilosaurus and Dorudon. Although these large marine mammals resembled modern whales and dolphins they lacked the ‘melon organ’ which allows echolocation in their descendants (Ford, et al. , 2000). In the middle of the Oligocene (33 million years ago) a animal called Squalodon is thought to have been the first to use echolocation. With a cranium which was well compressed, and a telescoped rostrum i t displayed a skull similar to modern dolphins.A big problem with the hunting marine mammals is that they all have a common ancestor, and all have retained a common lineage of very good hearing. Fish have poor hearing which allows the residential killer whales to freely use communication when hunting. Transient killer whales have been forced to change this behaviour because of their choice of prey including seals, dolphins, porpoises and whales. With all mammals having good underwater hearing they have been required to adopt a reduced vocal communication when searching for prey. ConclusionI believe that the lack of acoustic communication between transient killer whales is due to the ability of their selected prey being able to hear the clicks, whistles and pulses they generate. These sounds can be heard from over seven kilometres away and marine mammals do react to these calls (Deecke et al. , 2002). In the study by Deecke in 2002, he played the sounds of killer whales near a harbou r seal colony which resulted in most of the seals displaying strong anti-predator behaviour of leaving the water. This suggests that they are able to clearly hear the calls and understand what is generating them.I believe that other marine mammals will react in a similar way. Guinet (1992) observed the vocal patterns of killer whales around the Crozet Archipelago and came to the same result as Deecke (2004) that the killer whales were silent throughout hunting and searching, but once a mammalian kill was made the pod would greatly increase in vocal activity. While it can be a risk to produce noise after killing a prey, for fear of drawing the attention of other predators or scavengers, killer whales are the apex predator and have no natural predators.Resources Baird, R. W, Stacey, P. J. , (1988). Foraging and feeding behaviour of transient killer whales. Whalewatcher vol 22, no. 1:11-15 Barrett-Lennard, L. G. , Ford, J. K. B. , Heise, K. A. , (1996). The mixed blessing of echolocati on: differences in sonar use by fish-eating and mammal-eating killer whales. Animal Behaviour, 51: 553-565 Deecke, V. B. , Ford, J. K. B, Sprong, P. (2000). Dialect change in resident killer whales: implications for vocal learning and cultural transmission. Animal Behaviour 60: 629-638 Deecke, V. B. Ford, J. K. B, Slater, P. J. B. (2002). Selective habituation shapes acoustic predator recognition in harbour seals. Nature 420: 170-173 Deecke, V. B. , Ford, J. K. B, Slater, P. J. B. (2004). The vocal behaviour of mammal-eating killer whales: Communicating with costly calls. Animal Behaviour 69: 395-405 Fenton, M. B. (2003). Eavesdropping on the echolocation and social call of bats. Mammal Review 33: 193-204 Ford, J. K. B. (1984). Call traditions and vocal dialects of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in British Columbia. Ph. D. hesis, University of British Columbia Ford, J. K. B. (1989). Acoustic behaviour of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Can adian Journal of Zoology 67:727-745 Ford, J. K. B. , Ellis, G. M. , Balcomb, K. C. (2000) Killer whales the natural history and genealogy of Orcinus orca in British Columbia and Washington State. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press Guinet, C. (1992) Comportent de chasse des orques (Orcinus orca) autour des iles Crozet. Canadian journal of Zoology 70: 1656-1667Hammond, T. J. , Bailey, W. J. , (2003) Eavesdropping and defensive auditory masking in an Australian bush cricket, Caedicia (Phaneropterinae: Tettigoniidae: Orthoptera). Behaviour 140: 79-95 Hosken, D. J. , Bailey, W. J. , Oshea, J. E. , Roberts, J. D. (1994) Localization of insect calls by the bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae): a laboratory study. Australian Journal of Zoology 42: 177-184 Matkin, D. (1988) Killer whales of Norway. Homer: North Gulf Oceanic Society Rydell, J. , Jones, G. , Waters, D. 1995) Echolocating bats and hearing moths: who are the winners? Oikos 73: 419-424 Wilson, B. , Dill, L. M. (2002) Pacific herring respond to stimulated odontocete echolocation sounds. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 59: 542-553 Yurk, H, Barrett-Leonard, L. , Ford, J. K. B. Matkin, C. O. (2002) Cultural transmission within maternal lineages: vocal clans in resident killer whales in southern Alaska. Animal Behaviour 63: 1103–1119 Vocal behaviour of mammal-eating killer whales A report on a unique behavioural characteristic By Michael Clark 83787877

Descartes Dream Argument Essay

How do we know we are not dreaming some particular experience we are having, or we are not dreaming all our experience of this world? When we dream we imagine things happening often with the same sense of reality as we do when we are awake. In Descartes dream argument, he states there are no reliable signs distinguishing sleeping from waking. In his dream argument, he is not saying we are merely dreaming all of what we experience, nor, is he saying we can distinguish dreaming from being awake. I think his point is we cannot be for sure what we experience as being real in this world is actually real. When Descartes remembers occasions when he is dreaming, he falsely believes he is awake. Reflecting on this, Descartes thinks he cannot ever tell whether or not he is dreaming. How can he know he perceives his hands right now? Maybe, it is all just a dream. If it were just a dream everything would seem to be the same. In order to have knowledge the suggestion he is dreaming is false, he somehow has to have some knowledge of being awake. I believe his dream argument could be formed in this way: 1. When we are dreaming we are not in a good position to tell whether we are actually dreaming or awake. 2. Any experience you are having right now could also mean you are dreaming. In other words, you can’t possibly know you are dreaming even if it is a dream. 3a. For each of your experiences, you can’t tell whether your experience is a dream or not. (You can’t tell which of your dreams is a waking experience or a dreaming experience). 3b. For all you know, all of your experiences may be dreams. (You may be walking around in a dream, never having any walking experiences) Most philosophers think the dream argument supports both conclusions, but many philosophers also think this argument is strong enough to support 3a but not 3b. It is not really clear whether Descartes is arguing for the stronger claim or the weaker claim. It could be 3b, the weaker claim, is enough to support his purpose. Maybe he does not need a stronger claim to prove his theory. The last step in Descartes argument says if he cannot tell whether he is dreaming, then how can he trust any of his senses telling him about the environment? To know anything about the external world on the basis of his sensory experiences, it seems like Descartes would have to know those experiences are not all just a dream: To know anything about the external world on the basis or your sensory experiences, you have to know that you are not dreaming. I believe the things in my dreams must have been patterned after real things. So, even if I might be dreaming now, I know the world has colors, things that take up space, have shape, quantity, and a place in space and time. Now if you pull premises 1-4 together, we get the result of the conclusion: 5. Therefore, you can’t know anything about the external world based on your sensory experiences. In an interpretation of Descartes Dream Argument, premise 1 supports premise two and premise 3a and 3b support premise 4. So let us take a look at premise 2, 4, and the conclusion. This looks like the valid inference rule, such as modus ponens. P ? Q P__________ Therefore, Q However, that is not what is exactly happening in the dream argument. For premise 4 says to know you would have to know you are not dreaming. But premise 3 says you cannot know you are dreaming. In order for Modus Ponens argument to work, it would have to contain the premise: â€Å"I know I am dreaming. † Since Descartes cannot actually declare he is dreaming, it will not work. So there goes the premise of the argument. The most Descartes can say in his argument is â€Å"you can’t tell whether you experience is a dream,† premise two states â€Å"You can’t possibly know you are dreaming,† to premise 3, â€Å"you can’t tell if you are dreaming† to the conclusion, â€Å"You can’t know anything. † In order for Modus Ponens to work once again Descartes would have to know he was dreaming. As stated above he cannot state his position as if he is dreaming, so there goes the premises argument. So if this is not a valid argument, then perhaps there is a way to revise my interpretation on Descartes’ Dream argument so it turns out to be a valid rgument. Can we make the argument valid by changing premise 4? 2. Any experience you are having right now could also mean that you are dreaming. In other words, you can’t possibly know that you are dreaming even if it really is a dream. 4. I know that I am dreaming. Therefore, you can’t know anything about the external world based on your sensory experiences. This is now valid but is Descartes actually dreaming? Lets try switching around premises one. 1. If I cannot distinguish with certainty between sense perceptions and dreams, then I cannot believe anything based on images as true. . I cannot distinguish with certainty between sense perceptions and dreams. 3. Therefore, I cannot believe as true anything based on images. The argument is now valid again. But the question remains, whether the argument is sound and all the premises are true. A dream is a dream because its external conditions make it a dream and not because of a sense perception. If I am asleep and having an image of a body, than I am dreaming. If I am awake and having an image of a body, then I am not dreaming. Usually I am having a sense perception, but it could also be a hallucination. Dreaming is a certain kind of state. The only way to know you are not dreaming is to know you are not in a state of being asleep and having mental images, sounds, etc. No amount of images, sounds, can tell me I am in the state of being asleep and having images, sounds, etc. before my mind. If premise 2 is true, you can never be certain you are dreaming, as opposed to having sense perception. For instance, I can never step outside of myself to check what state I am in. It is indeed possible I could be dreaming. Descartes, however, has a very different kind of reply to the dream argument. He does not challenge premise 2 at all, instead he challenges premise one: If I cannot distinguish with certainty between sense perceptions and dreams, then I cannot believe as true anything based on images, etc. Descartes states in meditation one, â€Å"Nevertheless, it surely must be admitted that the things seen during slumber are, as it were, like plain images, which could only have been produced in the likeness of true things, and these general things —eyes, hands, head, and the whole body,–are not imaginary things, but are true and exist. This statement is actually very clear because the reply is the contents of dreams (Mt. Everest, other people, houses, etc) must come from reality. We get images through the world that we live in, so even if I am dreaming, I know there are mountains, people, and houses. They must exist in order to have dreams like the ones I have. If the world was different then I would have different kinds of dreams. † In Descartes final thoughts he admits it seems to be possible I am now dreaming even though no one could know anything about the world around us. I think Descartes point to be made throughout the dream argument is we are able we are not dreaming if we are to know an external world around us. If we are to know our external world around us, then we would have a better understanding of why we dream. It would also give us a better understand to distinguish from being awake to dreaming. It seems to me the point throughout his dream argument the point he is trying to make is we cannot be sure of what we experience as being real in the world is actually real. Descartes may have not made his point to be valid or true, but made us think outside the box, there are other possible choices to why we experience these thoughts when we dream.